Gender and Sex Inequalities

The cult of manliness, the Victorian Era, and Play Day Era all worked to demonstrate the former struggle of gender. The women referred to as the "New Women" (Cahn 344) began challenging the Victorian gender arrangements and began to participate in male only activities, which included sports. As men hold the more masculinity aspect, naturally they are assumed to be better then the woman, but as the woman began to join in the everyday life and activities of the men, the women were criticised that they may become more manly women and lose their femininity. Which may also damage the woman's internal organs and threaten their possibility to have children in the future. Sage also mentioned how organizations were put directly towards men, an example of this would be boy scouts. When the Play Day Era came about, it was to help women be able to be more involved in the sports and organizations and give them more of an equal opportunity. It wasn't just in a central location either, teams all over the nation were forming to help get women more involved. An example of this came into reality is the 1932 Olympics when women were allowed to participate, since before this year, it was prohibited for women to participate. The Victorian Era, almost challenged and helped the women and equal opportunities and it supported them in not only sports but gaining recongnition as human beings in the nation. A main cause of the downfall of women and their recognition is the way the

media plays into factor, as they tend to put a main focus on men's sporting events.

Mike Messner points out the men and women are different in sports since athetics focus on a main thing that men have, which is their masculinity. But that the gender and sexuality are very different when analyzing sports, since it is assumed that atheltic men are straight. Unlike the male assumption, as a women athelete, their sexuality is not assumed right off the bat.

During high school Messner chose to try and demonstrate his masculinity by picking on the weakest link. By doing this, it allows others to see how strong and passive he is, instead showing weakness as a male athelete. But in fact, it just shows what it has come to to live up to our stereotype that has been set on our gender.

Pistol Pete

Kriegel, Mark (2007). Pistol: The Life of Pete Maravich. Free Press. ISBN 0743284976.

gender and sex inequalities

The Victorian Era led to more opportunities for women through education, the workforce, and technologies. This era stressed women’s physiology, fashion, and their social expectations within the structures of society while also reflecting social class and race. It was thought that exercise was unfeminine, muscular, and even subject to uterine cancer. The Play Day Era brought women together and enabled them to play sports. The women wouldn’t “compete” but they would all play together, against each other. The Cult of Manliness arose in the latter 19th/20th centuries and became a direct link to male masculinity. Thusly sport and male privileges are interconnected through structures and ideologies of American sport. Through structure, males are said to hold the power or what counts or what is considered to be “sport,” and through the ideologies that sport reinforces by valuing the male body.
Mike Messner’s claim is that one of the dominant notions of men playing sports is to promote their heterosexuality and masculinity. Messner states, "An important dimension of this reconstruction of hegemonic masculinity through sport involved a linkage between masculinity and heterosexuality” (224). Women's participation in sports allowed people to question sexuality along with gender, it is known that the more masculine women are, the more likely it will be that they get the label of lesbian.
In Messner’s sexual story he and his teammates exemplified heterosexuality in sport by reacting to effeminate peers with a mixture of homophobia, rejection and aggression (233). On my college basketball team, there were many lesbian players. It was interesting to watch the way certain individuals would react to those who were lesbian. Many of the straight teammates were homophobic and wouldn’t like to change in the locker room or would do other things relating to homophobia.

Sex/Gender Inequalities

The cult of manliness, Victorian Era, and Play Day Era worked to both challenge and reinforce inequalities in sport. The cult of manliness, which was sparked by the rise of women in the workforce and public life following the industrial revolution in the late 19th century, gave men a new way to maintain patriarchal gender relations through sport. Because sport often demanded "masculine" qualities of strength, aggression, and courage, the male dominance threatened by the emergence of the "new women" was now expressed in sport. Women were looked down upon if they engaged in sport, as it went against the Victorian ideals that a woman was to be petite, fragile, weak, and submissive; therefore, not many engaged in sport, and those that did were experienced derogation and public ridicule for challenging traditional gender roles. In the Victorian Era norms were mostly reinforced nearly excluding women participation from sport for reasons that women were seen as homemakers, and not seen as able to handle the vigorous demands of sport. However, norms were challenged by the growing popularity of bicycling, baskette and basketball among women. The emergence of the bicycle was a huge step for women because it gave them a chance to socialize, be somewhat independent, and allowed them to get out of the house, which was previously seen as dangerous. The Play Day Era also gave women more freedom in the realm of sport, by allowing them to have greater access to sport by means of "play days," where women from various colleges got together and played sports with, not against, each other. Although this gave women more access and exposure to sport, the play days also reinforced gender constraints by its emphasis on socializing and motherhood rather than athleticism, and preventing aggression and competition.
The dominant interrelated notions of sex and gender that shaped the way sport was structured in the past also influence the way sport is structured today. Sport is still seen as a male preserve, and is set up in a way that has a male bias and allows for men that participate to confirm their masculinity and heterosexuality. Furthermore, males who do not participate in sport are seen as queers, or homosexuals. Sport is often structured in a way that male qualities such as greater height, strength, and weight give athletes a competitive edge, and thus reinforces sex and gender inequalities. Moreover, female participation in sport is kept in check by thoughts that sport participation may make female athletes more masculine, or even turn them into lesbians. The media also reinforces sex and gender inequalities in sport by emphasizing male sports, trivializing and marginalizing female sports, and by portraying female athletes with sexual overtones and as more of entertainers than athletes.
Messner suggest dominant notions of sexuality and gender have been constructed differently for men and women in regards to sport. According to Messner, sport involvement offers a "normalizing equation for men: Athleticism=Masculinity=Heterosexuality. (225)" On the other hand, sport involvement is a paradox for women because in demonstrating athleticism and exerting masculine qualities of strength, courage, and aggression in sport, the female athlete's feminity and sexuality are often questioned.
Messner does not agree with the use of homosexual as a category because it incorrectly labels groups of people and can be based on false assumptions. Messner encourages people to challenge the binary, and challenging the idea that female sport participation automatically leads to becoming a lesbian.
Messner and his teammates constructed/performed heterosexuality by discriminating and ridiculing Timmy. Messner was afraid, embarrassed, or intimidated by his attraction for Timmy, therefore he tried to hide the attraction by name-calling and treating him as an outcast. Furthermore, Messner elbows Timmy a few years later to demonstrate his aggression and dominance. I have never experienced or participated in this sort of construction, but I do know that boys will pick on the smaller/weaker ones to make themselves seem more masculine and aggressive.

The cult of manliness, the Victorian Era, and the Play Day Era all reinforce/challenge former social constructions of gender because it allows us to see an ideology that projected male dominance over women. If a man did a sport, he was considered more masculine than those who don't. Women weren't looked at as athletes, they weren't "good enough" to play men's sports. If they did, then they would have very expensive "medical bills" because, "Medical experts and exercise specialist disagreed among themselves about the effects of athletic activity on women's reproductive cycles and organs." This was in the early 1900s. The cult of manliness was a way to toughen up boys in order to "masculinize" them so that in the future they would be involved in sports and run the male ideology. The Victorian Era allowed women more freedom within the world. It allowed them to get an education and get better work. However, in the sports world, women were still denied when it came to playing sports and even watching them. Then came the Play Day Era. This allowed women to eventually become more involved with sports, thus break the ideology that allowed only men to compete in sports. More and more women's teams were being developed, and eventually, in 1932, women were allowed to compete in the Olympic Games.


Mike Messner explains that sexuality and gender are built very differently between males and females when it comes to sport. "As many people have pointed out, sport participation offers a nomalizing equation for men: athleticism = masculinity = heterosexuality." (Messner, 225) This basically means that because a man participates in sports, he is a straight man and has no chance of being a homosexual. "For women atheletes, the equation has nearly always been more paradoxical: athleticism? femininity? heterosexuality?" (225) So does this imply that is a women participates in athletics, her sexuality is in question?


In his high school story, he rejects his classmate, and thus enters into a hegemonic state of masculinity with his team. As he tried to become the head honcho of his team, he acted out towards the weakest guy on his team. In his teammates eyes, this probably said that he will pick on the weakest link, but still makes him masculine. However in my eyes, it just makes him look pathetic.

Gender Inequality

The cult of manliness, the Victorian Era and the Play Day Era all worked to reinforce and challenge social constructions of gender. The cult of manliness was sparked by industrialization and a new need for men to express their masculinity. It largely endorsed “masculine” traits such as courage, ruggedness and hardiness (Sage, 139). The cult of manliness led women to play sports for health reasons and only in moderation (Sage 140), thus emphasizing their “gentle” feminine nature and creating an ever-widening gender gap in sport. On a similar note, the Victorian Era also reinforced current gender norms by keeping white, middle-class men at the center of sport and marginalizing or trivializing women. The women who did attempt to break the social constructs were labeled “New Women” and according to Cahn represented “both the appealing and threatening aspects of modern womanhood” (3). And although these women made great strides, Cahn goes on to admit, “women athletes invoked condemnation as often as praise” (3).

The Play Day Era challenged social constructions of gender to a degree, by giving women more access to sports. However, it also reinforced existing norms by keeping a focus on motherhood, wellness and playing for the joy of the game. Competition and aggressiveness were severely frowned upon and a great deal of the day was focused on relaxing and getting to know women from other schools. Many of the gender related issues that are prevalent today are similar to those in the Victorian and Play Day Era. Women athletes are often still viewed as overly masculine, or even as a lesbian. Or they are viewed with very sexual overtones, as entertainers or celebrities with less focus on their athleticism. The media continues to emphasize male sport as “real” sport.

Messner states that the need for men to “come to grips with their heterosexuality” emerged at the same time as the rise of modern sport (224). Therefore, sport was the window men were able to use to assert their masculinity and thereby cement their heterosexuality (225). On the other hand, women athletes appeared to be a paradox. Does athleticism breed femininity, thus proving heterosexuality? (225). Messner encourages society to break down the binary of homosexuality vs. heterosexuality but to be wary of putting too much value on the rhetoric involved (227). In Messner’s sexual story he and his teammates exemplified heterosexuality in sport by reacting to effeminate peers with a mixture of homophobia, rejection and aggression (233). In my high school we had some very feminine girls on the basketball team along with some very masculine ones. The more masculine girls were definitely stigmatized and treated differently even though they were excellent players and a major reason for the success of our team.

The cult of manliness and Victorian Era challenged the former social constructs of gender. Women began challenging Victorian gender arrangements and started to participate in previously male arenas of public work, politics, urban life, and even athletics. These women were referred to as the “New Women.” (Cahn 344) However, the male gender ideology labeled aggression, physicality, competitive spirit, and athletic skill as masculine attributes necessary for achieving true manliness. Thus, sport and male privileges are interconnected through the structures and ideologies of American sport. Critics, such as physicans, sportswriters, male athletic officials, and public educators felt sports would create manly women who would not be attractive to men and sports would induce same sex love (Cahn 347). They also stated that women athletes were in danger of adopting masculine dress, talk, and mannerisms. They felt that too much exercise would damage female reproductive organs and they would not be able to have children. There was even the extreme that said that the excitement of sport would cause women to lose control, conjuring up images of frenzied, distraught co-eds on the verge of moral, physical, and emotional breakdown (Cahn 345). In the 1880s, there was the bicycle and basketball craze of women. This challenged the former constructs of gender because leaving the home during this time period was considered “dangerous”. It was a big deal that women were leaving their homes. However, the Play Day Era reinforced social constructs of gender. Teams from different areas came to one location and they played not against, but with each other in a less competitive manner. The sports were set up in a controlled manner so that they were not going against the status quo. By decreasing competition and controlling the games so that they were fun, women were reverted back to the way females “should” participate.
Today, many sports are constructed so that the taller, stronger, faster, and more lengthy individual has the greatest chance of winning. Often, weight comes into play also. These characteristics are bias to men, allowing men to be dominant to women when these characteristics are included. Through these structures, the basic ideology is that men are better at sports than women.

According to Mike Messner, sexuality and gender have been differently constructed for women and for men in sport. Messner says that sport participation offers a normalizing equation for men: athleticism=masculinity=heterosexuality. But for women, the equation has always been more paradoxal: are women athletic? feminine? Heterosexual? It is not fair, when a man participates in sports, he is “normal.” But, if a women participates she is considered manly or a lesbian.

Messner’s critique of homosexual as a category is that he feels heirarchial and reductionist theories have incorrectly named groups of people, such as working class women, and that they made naïve assumptions (228). He believes that women can participate in sports and still remain the same gender, feminine or masculine. He challenges the binary with the purpose of disrupting past assumptions about homosexuals, such as the example above.

Messner’s “Sexual Story” consisted of two parts, both providing an example of heterosexuality. First, Messner and his teammates rejected Timmy as a member of their basketball team by being aggressive towards him and calling him a faggot. Secondly, Messner realized that in order to step up his own game and become a better player he needed to be more aggressive. As a result, during practice he set a pick on Timmy and elbowed him directly in the stomach, making it look like an accident. He felt that picking on the weakest member of their team would make him feel tough. My own experience refers back to high school basketball. I was undersized, being 5’2”, but so was our team as a whole. However, we made up for this disadvantage by bring physical and aggressive. When rebounding, I would use my elbows and give a more aggressive bump with my butt. Or, when driving in the lane for a lay-up I may have lowered my shoulder so they would get out of my way.