Sex/Gender Inequalities

The cult of manliness, Victorian Era, and Play Day Era worked to both challenge and reinforce inequalities in sport. The cult of manliness, which was sparked by the rise of women in the workforce and public life following the industrial revolution in the late 19th century, gave men a new way to maintain patriarchal gender relations through sport. Because sport often demanded "masculine" qualities of strength, aggression, and courage, the male dominance threatened by the emergence of the "new women" was now expressed in sport. Women were looked down upon if they engaged in sport, as it went against the Victorian ideals that a woman was to be petite, fragile, weak, and submissive; therefore, not many engaged in sport, and those that did were experienced derogation and public ridicule for challenging traditional gender roles. In the Victorian Era norms were mostly reinforced nearly excluding women participation from sport for reasons that women were seen as homemakers, and not seen as able to handle the vigorous demands of sport. However, norms were challenged by the growing popularity of bicycling, baskette and basketball among women. The emergence of the bicycle was a huge step for women because it gave them a chance to socialize, be somewhat independent, and allowed them to get out of the house, which was previously seen as dangerous. The Play Day Era also gave women more freedom in the realm of sport, by allowing them to have greater access to sport by means of "play days," where women from various colleges got together and played sports with, not against, each other. Although this gave women more access and exposure to sport, the play days also reinforced gender constraints by its emphasis on socializing and motherhood rather than athleticism, and preventing aggression and competition.
The dominant interrelated notions of sex and gender that shaped the way sport was structured in the past also influence the way sport is structured today. Sport is still seen as a male preserve, and is set up in a way that has a male bias and allows for men that participate to confirm their masculinity and heterosexuality. Furthermore, males who do not participate in sport are seen as queers, or homosexuals. Sport is often structured in a way that male qualities such as greater height, strength, and weight give athletes a competitive edge, and thus reinforces sex and gender inequalities. Moreover, female participation in sport is kept in check by thoughts that sport participation may make female athletes more masculine, or even turn them into lesbians. The media also reinforces sex and gender inequalities in sport by emphasizing male sports, trivializing and marginalizing female sports, and by portraying female athletes with sexual overtones and as more of entertainers than athletes.
Messner suggest dominant notions of sexuality and gender have been constructed differently for men and women in regards to sport. According to Messner, sport involvement offers a "normalizing equation for men: Athleticism=Masculinity=Heterosexuality. (225)" On the other hand, sport involvement is a paradox for women because in demonstrating athleticism and exerting masculine qualities of strength, courage, and aggression in sport, the female athlete's feminity and sexuality are often questioned.
Messner does not agree with the use of homosexual as a category because it incorrectly labels groups of people and can be based on false assumptions. Messner encourages people to challenge the binary, and challenging the idea that female sport participation automatically leads to becoming a lesbian.
Messner and his teammates constructed/performed heterosexuality by discriminating and ridiculing Timmy. Messner was afraid, embarrassed, or intimidated by his attraction for Timmy, therefore he tried to hide the attraction by name-calling and treating him as an outcast. Furthermore, Messner elbows Timmy a few years later to demonstrate his aggression and dominance. I have never experienced or participated in this sort of construction, but I do know that boys will pick on the smaller/weaker ones to make themselves seem more masculine and aggressive.